In my final year at University, one of my favourite units was Human Rights. It involved half our classes being on Universal Laws set by Europe and the UN. The other half was historical and philosophical lectures about the development of Laws and Rights of Humans today.

When I was revising for my exams which were 2 hours long, answering 2 unknown questions, I would write bullet points and when I had time would write a lengthy generic essay with those main points. I’d then have post it notes with quotes, memorable dates etc. and have them plastered all around the house from inside cupboards to on light switches where I would read, recite and try to remember for the exam. The generic essays I would read again a few times before the exam to familiarise myself with what was in it so that when questions came up, I had an essay already formed in my mind and would pull out various quotes and dates to be specific to the exam question. There was always past papers available on the University portal so that you could see what types of questions had been asked previously, make a good guess at questions that might come out and be familiar with the wording and expectations.

I always did this for my exams and it paid off as exams were one of my strongest assessments with high Bs at least. Using your essays and keeping detailed notes of all your readings as you went along with your studying meant that you have a bank full of information that you could copy and paste into exam essays without needing to cram for hours/days at a time. Every bit of information I used in any writing was always held in a bibliography in Harvard so I could also copy and paste that into essays and for in text referencing. Other students used the same method as I did, and the lecturers encouraged it as well. So it’s always in your best interests to be studious and methodical when it comes to academic work. You will save yourself so much time by taking things slow, steady and paying attention to the details.

When you get your module guide on your first day of each class, it outlines your assessments with their due date with a choice of essay questions. There is also a weekly reading list with essential and further reading sources. You MUST read the essential reading for your tutorial and at least attempt 2 readings from the further reading section. This will help immensely when it comes to exams and essays. This is expected reading for all your classes per semester (4 when I was at uni, currently 3). This is why setting yourself homework weekly and keeping a timetable for studying is so important as you will be reading hundreds of pages a week for your final assessments. Be prepared! Below highlights just the minimum of work required for a 2:1/1:1 Sociology degree for one module only.

There was always some hints of the topics that would be covered in the exams. There was always 5 questions and you had to answer 2. So just to be safe, you’d make sure you studied at least 3 topics in case one didn’t come up. Below is the bullet points I used for my gendercide/genocide exam question and using my Classical Jurisprudence essay question to give me a timeline of key moments in the evolution of Human Rights. My favourite readings in this module were from E. P. Thomson, I highly recommend checking the reading list below to find out more.

Genocides

Gender aspect of it – Gendercide

Give examples – Armenian Genocide, pits in mountains where people were burnt alive, taken to rivers, tied together with one shot and the other drowned. Men taken away from families and killed, women and children were taken into the desert. Sri Lanka – State vs. Tigers and the genocide of all peoples where the UN aided in the ‘civil war.’

Hunt (2008) sees a paradox of distance and closeness at work in modern times. With the age of technology we have made it easier to empathise with people all around the world and urge our governments or international organisations to intervene. On the other hand we have seen how neighbours have been able to brutally kill each other.

Careful research has shown that ordinary human beings are capable of atrocities because they have been in the ‘right’ circumstances that legitimate those actions.

Relatively new term first used in 1944

Recognised as a crime by the United Nations in 1946

Key characteristic: to eradicate groups of people on the grounds of race, ethnicity, religion or national group (Yazidi women and ISIL?)

Often seen as ONE criminal episode. However, usually comprises a large number of wide-ranging offences

International Convention of the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (09.12.1948): Article 2 . Genocide means any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such:

a) Killing members of the group

b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group

c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part

d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group

e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group

Some countries also include political groups in their definition

Threshold- thousands, millions? – down to courts discretion

Ethnic cleansing – not in Article 2 but recognised by UN General Assembly in 1992

The concept of genocide applies only when there is an actualised intent, however successfully carried out, to physically destroy an entire group (as such a group is defined by the perpetrators) (Steven Katz, 1989).

Genocide is the systematic, one-sided mass killing of persons selected on the basis of their perceived membership of an ethnic or communal group, with the aim either of eliminating the group in its entirety, or of eliminating whatever threat it is perceived to pose (Chalk, Jonassohn and Levene, 1990).

Genocide is the sustained purposeful action by a perpetrator to physically destroy a collectivity directly or indirectly through interdiction of the biological and social reproduction of group members, sustained regardless of the surrender or lack of threat offered by the victim (Helen Fein, 1993).

Genocide in the generic sense means the mass killing of substantial numbers of human beings, when not in the course of military action against the military forces of an avowed enemy, under conditions of the essential defencelessness of the victim (Israel Charny, 1994).

(Tatz, Colin (2003) With Intent to Destroy: Reflecting on Genocide, London: Verso)

Sudan is the largest country by area in Africa

Darfur is a region in western Sudan, approximately the size of Texas

6 million people used to live in Darfur

–450,000 dead (from violence, famine, and disease)

–2.5 million refugees and internally displaced persons

–150,000 – 300,000 refugees in neighboring Chad

1956 Sudan gains independence from British rule

Civil war between North and South from 1955-1972 and again from 1983-2002

–South Sudanese not represented in Khartoum government

–While oil was discovered in Southern Sudan in the 1970s, the Khartoum government demanded all of the oil revenues be funneled to the national government

Peace agreement in 2003

In 2003, two rebel groups from Darfur rise up against the Sudanese government

–Sudanese Liberation Movement

–Justice and Equality Movement

The political aim of the rebel groups is to compel to Sudanese government to address underdevelopment and political marginalisation of the region

Sudanese government arms Janjaweed militia, comprised mostly of members of Arab nomadic tribes who have been in conflict with settled farmers in Darfur. Janjaweed kill and expel Darfurians

Janjaweed has been translated as “devil on a horse” in Arabic

In addition to killing and expelling members of a village, the Janjaweed burn their food stores so that the survivors cannot return

2.5 million refugees and IDPs in Sudan and neighboring Chad.

Thousands die each month from the effects of inadequate food, water, health care, and shelter in a harsh desert environment. Pictured are graves outside and IDP camp.

The victims and others said the rapes seemed to be a systematic campaign to humiliate the women, their husbands and fathers, and to weaken tribal ethnic lines. In Sudan, as in many Arab cultures, a child’s ethnicity is attached to the ethnicity of the father. The crisis in Darfur is a result of long-simmering ethnic tensions between nomadic cattle and camel herders, who view themselves as Arabs, and the more sedentary farmers, who see their ancestry as African. In February 2003, activists from three of Darfur’s African tribes started a rebellion against the government, which is dominated by an Arab elite. The rapists use the terms ‘slaves’ and ‘black slaves’ to refer to the women, who are mostly from the Fur, Masalit and Zaghawa ethnic groups.” Rape and gang-rape continually used as a weapon, with motivation of diluting the gene pool.

“They grabbed my donkey and my straw and said, ‘Black girl, you are too dark. You are like a dog. We want to make a light baby,’” said Sawela Suliman, 22, showing slashes from where a whip had struck her thighs. ‘They said, ‘You get out of this area and leave the child when it’s made.’”

Rape is used to humiliate both men and women, as there exists a stigma against rape in Darfurian Muslim culture

Reports state the African Arab Janjaweed shout racial slurs as they destroy the villages, claiming that they will kill all non-Arab “Africans” or “Blacks”. While both the Janjaweed and Darfurians have black skin, the Janjaweed persecute the Darfurians because they are non-Arabs.

One refugee told New York Times columnist Nicholas Kristof that “the Arabs want to get rid of anyone with black skin. . . . There are no blacks left [in the area I fled].”

The Eight Stages of Genocide were first outlined by Dr. Greg Stanton, Department of State: 1996.

Classification: Us versus Them n“Us versus them”

Distinguish by nationality, ethnicity, race, or religion.

Bipolar societies (Rwanda) most likely to have genocide because no way for classifications to fade away through inter-marriage.

  • China, Russia, Malaysia and India’s investments in Sudanese oil fund the Khartoumgovernment’s perpetuation of genocide.
  • China and Russia are also on the United Nation’s security council
  • Roots of genocide lie in the colonial past?

Rwanda

  • Small East African nation with a population of 8 million
  • 14% of population Tutsi; 85% Hutu; 1%Twa
  • Tutsi = landowners / Hutu =labourers
  • Hutu and Tutsi have always spoken the same language
  • Tutsi meant warrior/farmer
  • Hutu meant peasant
  • While Tutsis generally are taller and lighter skinned, intermarriage through the years has rendered identification by sight impossible
  • Hutus, by accumulating enough property, could become Tutsi. The distinctions were fluid
  • The Germans were the first Europeans tocoloniseRwanda.
  • They did so in the early 1900’s.
  • The Germans helped to fight off other countries that wanted to attack Rwanda (the Hutus and Tutsis). This helped to protect Rwanda and make it strong.
  • After WWI, the United Nations decided that Germany could no longer rule Rwanda.
  • The country was now under the safeguards of the United Nations, and it was to be governed by Belgium.
  • Belgium decided to use the class system (that had already been put into place) to their advantage.
  • The Belgians favored the Tutsis and gave them privileges and western-style education.
  • The Belgians did this because they could control Rwanda easier this way.
  • The Belgians also favored the Tutsis because they appeared more European in their tall, slender features. They discriminated against the Hutus because they appeared less European.
  • After creating laws that gave special privileges to the Tutsi, the Belgians ran into a problem… how could they be sure who was a Tutsi and who was a Hutu?
  • Physical characteristics identified some, but not all.
  • The solution: Have every single citizen register and carry an identification card.

If you could not give proof of your ancestry, the Belgians would simply measure your height and other features.

If you appeared more European, they listed you has a Tutsi.

If your features were shorter, darker, stronger, etc. they listed you has a Hutu.

Parmehutu

  • The Party for the Emancipation of the Hutus is formed in 1959.
  • Hutus rebelled against the Belgian colonial power and the Tutsi elite.
  • 150,000 Tutsis flee to Burundi (which at the time was part of Rwanda).
  • The troubles between groups have persisted since

Genocide against the Tutsi population occurred in 1994, but there had been massacres between 1990-1994

Power was seized by the military after the president (Hutu) was killed in a plane crash (in unknown circumstances)

Police, soldiers, but mainly civilians began the genocide

During 100 days between April and mid-July it is estimated between 800,000-1million Tutsis, moderate Hutus were killed

America’s response to the genocide: “Be careful. Legal at State was worried about this yesterday — Genocide finding could commit [the US government] to actually ‘do something.’ ”

Richard Clarke: Critic of Bush policy on Iraq. Managed US policy on Rwanda and staunchly opposed any intervention and demanded the removal of UN peacekeeping forces.

When UNAMIR officers said 5000 troops could stop the killing, the UN, under US pressure, withdrew all peacekeepers.

Genocide succeeds when state sovereignty blocks international responsibility to protect.

The UN represents states, not peoples.

Since founding of UN:

Over 45 genocides and politicides

Over 70 million dead

Genocide prevention ≠ conflict resolution

Reasons to not declare genocide:

They’re crimes against humanity, not genocide.

They’re “ethnic cleansing”, not genocide.

There’s not enough proof of specific intent to destroy a group, “as such.” (“Many survived!”

UN Commission of Inquiry on Darfur.

Claim the only “real” genocides are like the Holocaust: “in whole.” Ignores the “in part” in the Genocide Convention.

Claim declaring genocide would legally obligate us to intervene. (We don’t want to intervene.)

Political reasons:

Avoid upsetting “the peace process.” “Look to the future, not to the past.”

Deny to assure benefits of relations with the perpetrators or their descendents. (oil, arms sales, alliances, military bases)

Don’t threaten humanitarian assistance to the victims, who are receiving good treatment. (Show the model Thereisenstadt IDP camp.)

CIA documents released in 2004 showed that Bill Clinton, President at the time knew about the genocide but choose not to act. The administration did not want to repeat the fiasco of US intervention in Somalia, where US troops became sucked into fighting. It also felt the US had no interests in Rwanda, a small central African country with no minerals or strategic value.

  • Bosnia,formallypart of Yugoslavia
  • Population = 3 million

1.3 million Bosnian Serbs (Orthodox Catholic Christians)

1 million Sunni Muslims

700,000 Bosnian Croats (Roman Catholic Christians)

  • Croatia, Slovenia, Macedonia and Bosnia declared independence 1990-92, which wasrecognisedby the USA and the EU (1992)
  • War broke out in 1992
  • Serb paramilitaries attacked villages and towns in theNorth Eastof the country

Serbs seized control of these towns; murdering or expelling the Sunni Muslims

Serbs wanted the areas to be ‘ethnically pure’

Characterised by horrendous violence in some cases

Srebrenica 1995; 8000 Sunni Muslims massacred with UN Dutch soldiers present

The evolution of conventions (UN) and the establishment of the International Criminal Court has provided a mechanism to deal with the perpetrators of genocide

Increasing numbers of prosecutions have been secured

The above mark a shift in attitude – that genocide will not be tolerated

But not a view shared by all

  • ICC International Criminal Court
  • The ICC is an independent, permanent court that tries persons accused of the most serious crimes of international concern, namely genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes. The ICC is based on a treaty, joined by 122 countries (effective as of 1 May 2013).
  • Independent internationalorganisation, not UN,
  • The Hague
  • Governed by RomeStatue
  • 17th July 1998 120 States adopted RomeStatue
  • Ratification by 60 countries entered into force 1st July 2002.
  • What about Armenia?

More than 20 countries recognised genocide together with the UN and the European Parliament.

In Turkey Article 301 of penal code ‘Insulting Turkishness’.

… an analogy between the concept of genocide and what I call gendercide. The Oxford American Dictionary defines genocide as “the deliberate extermination of a race of people.” By analogy, gendercide would be the deliberate extermination of persons of a particular sex (or gender). Other terms, such as “gynocide” and “femicide,” have been used to refer to the wrongful killing of girls and women. But “gendercide” is a sex-neutral term, in that the victims may be either male or female. There is a need for such a sex-neutral term, since sexually discriminatory killing is just as wrong when the victims happen to be male. The term also calls attention to the fact that gender roles have often had lethal consequences, and that these are in important respects analogous to the lethal consequences of racial, religious, and class prejudice … Mary Anne Warren (on Genderside)

  • Sexually discriminatory killing, misogynist ideologies and anti-femalegenocide
  • Gender variable to “racial, religious, and class prejudice.”
  • Early examples: Sati in India; Female infanticide; witch-hunts in Europe.

Mass rape and sexual violence

“ …enemy males were killed and enemy females enslaved, the only surviving adult representatives of the defeated enemy would of course be female, and the psychological equation would have been established, over time, between femaleness and the enemy ‘Other.'”

  • I was … told that in Cerewek, Gabus, and Sulur [Indonesia, after the 1965-66 genocide] 70 percent of the population are widows.
  • Rwanda has become a country of women. It is currently estimated that 70 percent of the population is female and that 50 percent of all households are headed by women.

2009: Former Bosnian Serb leader Radovan Karadzic faces 11 charges of war crimes and crimes against humanity related to the 1992-1995 Bosnian war in which 100,000 people were killed, including two charges of genocide.

Three categories of charges: Genocide, Crimes against Humanity and Violations of the Laws or Customs of War

Genocide charges:

Charged with committing genocide against Bosnian Muslims and Bosnian Croats, participating in a ‘joint criminal enterprise’ (JCE) between 1992-1995 to remove Bosnian Muslims and Bosnian Croats from the territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina claimed as Bosnian Serb territory. As well as the 1995 massacre of Bosnian Muslim men and boys at Srebrenica, the worst atrocity in Europe since World War Two. Prosecutors say more than 7,000 were killed in organised and opportunistic executions.

He denies all the charges

Green and Ward: 1.The propagation by the ruling elite of an ideology excluding the victim group from the perpetrator’s universe of obligation.

2.The elite’s perception of the victim group as a threat or obstacle in a context of economic and political crisis, generally against the backdrop of war.

3.The use of psychological mechanisms of denial and neutralisation to overcome the inhibitions created by the more inclusive ideology.

4.The perpetration of excesses that reaffirm the banishing of those inhibitions.

5.A competing ideology, rooted in national and/or international culture that does not recognise the victims as worthy of moral concern.

  • Non-combatant men have been and continue to be the most frequent targets of mass killing and genocidal slaughter, as well as a host of lesser atrocities and abuses

“The practices of killing all male captives, of castrating the men whose lives have been spared, and of offering men less opportunities for manumission from slavery, all show that men’s domination of men outside the bonds of kinship and community has been more severe and brutal than men’s domination of women within or outside the kin or ethnic group”

The major long-term demographic result [of Pol Pot’s 1975–1979 genocide] is the preponderance of women in modern Cambodia. Women, including large numbers of widows, make up 60 to 80 percent of the adult population in various parts of the country, as well as among Cambodians abroad.

Classification is a primary method of dividing society and creating a power struggle between groups.

Belgians distinguished between Hutus and Tutsis by nose size, height & eye type. Another indicator to distinguish Hutu farmers from Tutsi pastoralists was the number of cattle owned

Names: “Jew”, “German”, “Hutu”, “Tutsi”.

Languages.

Types of dress.

Group uniforms: Nazi Swastika armbands

Colours and religious symbols: Yellow star for Jews. Blue checked scarf Eastern Zone in Cambodia

Symbolisation

“Ethnicity” was first noted on cards by Belgian Colonial Authorities in 1933.

Tutsis were given access to limited education programs and Catholic priesthood. Hutus were given less assistance by colonial authorities.

At independence, these preferences were reversed. Hutus were favoured.

These ID cards were later used to distinguish Tutsis from Hutus in the 1994 massacres of Tutsis and moderate Hutus that resulted in 800,000+ deaths

Jewish Passport: “Reisepäss”

Required to be carried by all Jews by 1938. Preceded the yellow star.

Homosexuals = pink triangles

Identified homosexuals to SS guards in the camps

Caused discrimination by fellow inmates who shunned homosexuals

Cambodia: People in the Eastern Zone, near Vietnam, were accused of having “Khmer bodies, but Vietnamese heads.”

They were deported to other areas to be worked to death.

They were marked with a blue and white checked scarf (Kroma)

Dehumanisation:

One group denies the humanity of another group, and makes the victim group seem subhuman.

Dehumanisation overcomes the normal human revulsion against murder.

Hate propaganda in speeches, print and on hate radios vilify the victim group.

Members of the victim group are described as animals, vermin, and diseases. Hate radio, Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines, during the Rwandan genocide in 1994, broadcast anti-Tutsi messages like “kill the cockroaches” and “If this disease is not treated immediately, it will destroy all the Hutu.”

Dehumanisation invokes superiority of one group and inferiority of the “other.”

Dehumanisation justifies murder by calling it “ethnic cleansing,” or “purification.” Such euphemisms hide the horror of mass murder

Organisation

Genocide is a group crime, so must be organised.

The state usually organises, arms and financially supports the groups that conduct the genocidal massacres.

Plans are made by elites for a “final solution” of genocidal killings.

“Hutu Power” elites armed youth militias called Interahamwe (“Those Who Stand Together”).

The government and Hutu Power businessmen provided the militias with over 500,000 machetes and other arms and set up camps to train them to “protect their villages” by exterminating every Tutsi.

Polarisation

Extremists drive the groups apart.

Hate groups broadcast and print polarising propaganda.

Laws are passed that forbid intermarriage or social interaction.

Political moderates are silenced, threatened and intimidated, and killed.

Public demonstrations were organised against Jewish merchants.

Moderate German dissenters were the first to be arrested and sent to concentration camps.

This is how Rwandan local radio incited the Hutus to violence (an act against international law):
‘You have to kill the Tutsis, they’re cockroaches.’
‘All those who are listening, rise so we can fight for our Rwanda. Fight with the weapons you have at your disposal: those who have arrows, with arrows, those who have spears, with spears. We must all fight.’
‘We must all fight the Tutsis. We must finish with them, exterminate them, sweep them from the whole country. There must be no refuge for them.’
‘They must be exterminated. There is no other way.’

Attacks are staged and blamed on targeted groups.

In Germany, the Reichstag fire was blamed on Jewish Communists in 1933.

Cultural centers of targeted groups are attacked.

On Kristalnacht in 1938, hundreds of synagogues were burned.

Preparation

Members of victim groups are forced to wear identifying symbols.

Death lists are made.

Victims are separated because of their ethnic or religious identity.

Segregation into ghettos is imposed, victims are forced into concentration camps.

Victims are also deported to famine-struck regions for starvation.

Weapons for killing are stock-piled.

Extermination camps are even built. This build- up of killing capacity is a major step towards actual genocide.

Extermination begins, and becomes the mass killing legally called “genocide.” Most genocide is committed by governments.

The killing is “extermination” to the killers because they do not believe the victims are fully human. They are “cleansing” the society of impurities, disease, animals, vermin, “cockroaches,” or enemies.

Although most genocide is sponsored and financed by the state, the armed forces often work with local militias.

Denial

Denial is always found in genocide, both during it and after it.

Continuing denial is among the surest indicators of further genocidal massacres.

Denial extends the crime of genocide to future generations of the victims. It is a continuation of the intent to destroy the group.

The tactics of denial are predictable.

Deny that there was any mass killing at all.

Question and minimise the statistics.

Block access to archives and witnesses.

Intimidate or kill eye-witnesses.

Destroy the evidence. (Burn the bodies and the archives, dig up and burn the mass graves, throw bodies in rivers or seas.)

Attack the motives of the truth-tellers. Say they are opposed to the religion, ethnicity, or nationality of the deniers.

Point out atrocities committed by people from the truth-tellers’ group. Imply they are morally disqualified to accuse the perpetrators.

Claim that the deaths were inadvertent (due to famine, migration, or disease.)

Blame “out of control” forces for the killings.

Blame the deaths on ancient ethnic conflicts.

Emphasise the strangeness of the victims. They are not like us. (savages, infidels)

Claim they were disloyal insurgents in a war.

Call it a “civil war,” not genocide.

Claim that the deniers’ group also suffered huge losses in the “war.” The killings were in self-defense.

Bibliography

Genocide

  1. G.Andreopoulos (ed.),Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Considerations
  2. F.Chalk,The History and Sociology of Genocide
  3. H.Fein,Genocide: A Sociological Perspective
  4. M.Shaw,War and Genocide: Organised Killing in Modern Society
  5. Shaw,What is Genocide?

The Holocaust

H. Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem

Z. Baumann,Modernity and the Holocaust

C. R. Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy

D. Cesarani (ed.),The Final Solution: Origins and Implementation

L. Dawidowicz,The Holocaust and the Historians

D. J. Goldhagen, Hitler’s Willing Executioners (if you read this, you should also read the critical response: N. Finkelstein & R. Bettina-Bern, A Nation on Trial: The Goldhagen Thesis and Historical Truth)

R. Hilberg,The Destruction of European Jewry

P. Levi, The Drowned and the Saved (includes the essay, ‘The Grey Zone)

Levi, Survival atAuschwitz

M. Marrus,The Holocaust in History

M. Marrus,The Nazi Holocaust

A. S. Mayer, Why did the Heavens not Darken?

Rosenbaum (ed.),Is the Holocaust Unique?

K. A. Schleunes, The Twisted Road to Auschwitz: Nazi Policy towards German Jews 1933-39

W. Sofsky and W. Templer, The Order of Terror: The Concentration Camp

Holocaust Literature:

(Essential reading Levi, Wiesel, etc., but the following are less conventional)

A. Appelfeld,Badenheim 1939;

Borowski, This Way to the Gas, ladies and Gentlemen

A. Spiegelman,Maus I & II;

Holocaust Literary Theory

S. Friedlander (ed.),Probing the Limits of Representation

D. G. Geis, Considering ‘Maus’: Approaches to Art Spiegelmann’s “Survivor’s Tale” of the Holocaust

B. Lang (ed.),Writing and the Holocaust

L. Langer,The Holocaust and the Literary Imagination

A. Leak & G.Paizis (eds.), The Holocaust and the Text: Speaking the Unspeakable

G. Steiner,Language and Silence

Holocaust Film Theory

J. E. Doneson, The Holocaust in American Film

A. Insdorf,Indelible Shadows: Film and the Holocaust

Y. Loshitzky,Spielberg’s Holocaust: Critical Perspectives on ‘Schindler’s List’

G. Sujo,Legacies of Silence: The Visual Arts and Holocaust Memory

Memory

T. Adorno, ‘What Does Coming to Terms with the Past Mean?’, in *G Hartman (ed.),Bitburg in Moral and Political Perspective

P. Carrier, Holocaust Monuments and National Memory Cultures in France and Germany since 1989

Epstein, Children of the Holocaust

N. Finkelstein,The Holocaust Industry

S. Friedlander,Memory, History and the Extermination of the Jews of Europe

P. Novick, The Holocaust and Collective Memory

J .Young,The Texture of Memory

J .Young,The Art of Memory: Holocaust Memorials in History

J .Young, At Memory’s Edge: After-Images of the Holocaust in Contemporary Art and Architecture

Rwanda

Destexhe, Rwanda and Genocide in the Twentieth Century

Eltringham, Accounting for Horror: Post-Genocide Debates in Rwanda

Gourevitch, We Wish to Inform You That Tomorrow We Will Be Killed With Our Families

Mamdani, When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism and the Genocide in Rwanda

Melvern, A People Betrayed: The Role of the West in Rwanda’s Genocide

Melvern, Conspiracy to Murder: Planning the Rwandan Genocide

Reading List For Human Rights Module

Essential Reading:

Ishay, M., R. (2008) The History of Human Rights. From Ancient to the Globalization Era, ch. 2, ‘Human Rights and the Enlightenment’, London: University of California Press, pp. 64-75 and 84-107.

Further Reading:

Douzinas, Costas (2007) Human Rights and Empire, Routledge, pp. 8-26. Available as e-book.

Douzinas, C. (2000) The End of Human Rights: Critical legal thought at the end of the century, Oxford: Hart. (Ch. 2, 3, and 4)

Fine, Robert (2002) Democracy and the Rule of Law Blackburn Press, ch.1 ‘Classical Jurisprudence’ pp. 11‐ 65.

Freeman, M. (2011) Human Rights: An Interdisciplinary Approach. Cambridge: Polity. (Ch. 2: Origins: the Rise and Fall of Natural Rights) Available on Blackboard

Grotius, H. (2005) The Rights of War and Peace, Indianapolis: Liberty Fund.

Grotius, H. (2004) The Free Sea, Indianapolis: Liberty Fund.

Grotius, H. (2006) Commentary on the Law of Prize and Booty, Indianapolis: Liberty Fund.

Hobbes, T. (1968) Leviathan, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.

Locke, J. (1988) Two Treatises of Government, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hume, D. (1978) A Treatise of Human Nature, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Rousseau J.J., (1984) A Discourse on Inequality, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.

Rousseau J.J., (1973) The Social Contract and Discourses, London: Dent.

Salter, J. (2001) Hugo Grotius. Property and Consent, Political Theory, 29(4), pp. 537-555.

The French Revolution and Human Rights

Essential Reading:

Hunt, Lynn (2007) Inventing human rights: a history, New York: W.W. Norton;

[ch. 3: ‘They have set a great example: declaring rights’ and ch. 4: ‘There will be no end of it: the consequences of declaring’].

Further Reading:

Hunt, Lynn (1996) The French Revolution and Human Rights: A Brief Documentary History, Palgrave MacMillan.

Muthu, Sankar (2003) Enlightenment Against Empire, Princeton: Princeton University Press; Chapter 3: ‘Diderot and the evils of empire’ pp. 72-121.

Brunkhorst, Hauke (2005) Solidarity: From Civic Friendship to a Global Legal Community, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT; Chapter 3: ‘The ideas of 1789: patriotism of human rights’.

Bhambra, Gurminder (2007) Rethinking Modernity: Postcolonialism and the Sociological Imagination. Basingstoke: Palgrave; Chapter 5: ‘Myths of the modern nation state – the French Revolution’

Buck-Morss, Susan (2000) ‘Hegel and Haiti’, Critical Inquiry 26 (4): 821–65. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1344332

Kristeva, Julia (1991) Strangers to Ourselves, New York: Columbia University Press; Chapter 7: ‘On foreigners and the Enlightenment’.

Foucault, Michel ‘The body of the condemned: torture’ in Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison

Marx as a Critic of Human Rights

Essential Reading:

Marx, K. (1843) ‘On the Jewish Question’ in Lucio Colletti (ed.) Marx’s Early Writings, Penguin.

Also available at: https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1844/jewish-question/

Further Reading:

Fine, Robert (2002) Democracy and the Rule of Law Blackburn Press, ch.2 ‘Marx’s critique of classical jurisprudence’ pp. 66‐85 and ch.4 ‘Law, state and capital’ pp. 95‐121.

Bernstein, Jay `Right, revolution and community’, in Peter Osborne (ed.), Socialism and the Limits of Liberalism, Verso, 1991.

Collins, Hugh (1982) Marxism and Law, Oxford.

Draper, Hal (1977) Karl Marx’s Theory of Revolution, Monthly Review, Vol 1.

Bruno Bauer (1983) ‘The Jewish Problem’ in LS Stepelevich (ed.), The Young Hegelians: An Anthology, CUP.

Bloch, Ernst (1967) ‘Man and citizen according to Marx’ in E Fromm (ed.), Socialist Humanism, Allen Lane.

Bloch, Ernst (1987) Natural Law and Human Dignity, MIT Press.

Fine, Robert (2001) Political Investigations: Hegel, Marx, Arendt, Routledge, ch5 ‘Right and value: the unity of Hegel and Marx’, pp. 79-99.

Fine, Robert (2009) ‘Marx’s critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right’ in Andrew Chitty and Martin McIvor Karl Marx and Contemporary Philosophy, Palgrave, pp. 105‐120.

Traverso, Enzo (1994) The Marxists and the Jewish Question: History of a Debate 1843‐1943, Humanity Books, ch.1 ‘Marx and Engels’.

Carlebach, Julius (1978) Karl Marx and the Radical Critique of Judaism, Littman Library of Jewish Civilisation, ch.7 ‘The radical challenge to Jews’ and ch8 ‘The Marxian response’, pp.125‐186

Varga, C. (ed.) (1992) Marxian Legal Theory, New York University Press.

Kamenka, E. (1983) ‘A Marxist Theory of Law?’, Law in Context 1, reprinted in C. Varga (ed.) Marxian Legal Theory.

Critical Social Theory and Human Rights

Essential Reading:

Thompson, Edward (1976) Whigs and Hunters: The Origins of the Black Act Penguin.

Pashukanis, Evgeni: Law and Marxism, Pluto, 1983, ch. 4 `Commodity and Subject’.

Further Reading:

Fine, Robert (2002) Democracy and the Rule of Law , Blackburn Press, ch.7 ‘20th century theories’, pp. 155‐189.

Kay, Geoff (1988) ‘Right and force: A Marxist critique of contract and the state’, in G Reuten and M Williams: Value, Social Form and the State, Macmillan.

Warrington,R (1981) ‘Pashukanis and the commodity form theory’, International Journal of the Sociology of Law, 9(1).

Norrie, Allan (1982) ‘Pashukanis and the Commodity Form Theory’, International Journal of the Sociology of Law, 10.

Binns, Peter (1980) ‘Law and Marxism’, Capital and Class, 10, pp. 100-113.

Sharlet, P `Pashukanis and the withering away of law in the USSR’, in S Fitzpatrick (ed.): Cultural Revolution in Russia 1928-31.

  1. P. Thompson, Writing By Candlelight, `The state of the nation’, pp. 189-223.

Fine, Robert `Muggletonian Marxism and the Rule of Law: The Perplexities of Edward Thompson’, Journal of Law and Society, 21, 2, June 1994, pp. 193-213.

Kellner, Douglas (1979) ‘Critical Theory, Democracy and Human Rights’, New Political Science, pp. 12-18.

Fine, Robert (2013) ‘Natural law and critical theory: Bringing rights back in’, Journal of Classical Sociology, 13(2), pp. 222-238.

Postcolonialism and Human Rights: Are Human Rights Western?

Essential Reading:

Butler, Judith (2008) ‘Sexual politics, torture and secular time’ British Journal of Sociology, 59 (1), pp. 1-23.

Further Reading:

Kapur, Ratna (2005) Erotic Justice: Law and the New Politics of Postcolonialism, Glasshouse Press, ch. 4 ‘The tragedy of victimisation rhetoric: resurrecting the ‘native ‘ subject in international / postcolonial feminist legal politics’

Bhambra, Gurminder and Shilliam, Robbie (eds). Silencing Human Rights: Critical Engagement s with a Contested Project London: Palgrave, pp. 1‐60.

Kapur, op.cit ch5 ‘The other side of universality: cross‐border movements and the transnational migrant subject’

Ferrara, Alessandro The Force of the Example: Explorations in the Paradigm of Judgment, Columbia University Press, ch6 ‘Exemplarity and human rights’.

Brennan, Fernne and Packer, John (eds) Colonialism, Slavery, Reparations and Trade, London: Routledge, 2013.

Miller, Christopher (2008) The French Atlantic Triangle: Literature and Culture of the Slave Trade, Duke University Press.

Said, Edward (2003) Orientalism, Penguin, ‘Introduction’, pp. 1-28.

Human Rights in Armed Conflict

Essential Reading:

A.E. Cassimatis, International humanitarian law, international human rights law and fragmentation of international law, I.C.L.Q. 2007, 56(3), 623-639

Further Reading:

Bethlehem, The relationship between international humanitarian law and international

human rights law in situations of armed conflict, C.J.I.C.L. 2013, 2(2), 180-195

de Than and E. Shorts, International criminal law and human rights, Sweet and Maxwell, 2003, chapter 6.

Respect for Human Rights in Armed Conflicts, Resolution 2444 (XXIII) of the United Nations General Assembly, 19 December 1968.

International Committee of the Red Cross – treaties and customary international law

http://www.icrc.org/eng/war-and-law/treaties-customary-law/index.jsp

Goodman, The power to kill or capture enemy combatants, E.J.I.L. 2013, 24(3), 819-853.

Tomuschat, Human rights and international humanitarian law, E.J.I.L. 2010, 21(1), 15-23.

Responsibility to Protect

Essential Reading:

Nardin, From right to intervene to duty to protect: Michael Walzer on humanitarian intervention, E.J.I.L. 2013, 24(1), 67-82

Further Reading:

Kalkman, Responsibility to protect: a bow without an arrow, C.S.L.R. 2009, 5(1), 75-92

Orford, Moral internationalism and the responsibility to protect, E.J.I.L. 2013, 24(1), 83-108

Report of the Secretary-General of the UN on Implementing the Responsibility to Protect, A/63/677, 12 January 2009

Responsibility to protect: An idea whose time has come – and gone? The Economist, 23 July 2009, available at http://www.economist.com/node/14087788

UN General Assembly Resolution A/RES/60/1 of 16 September 2005 on the 2005 World Summit Outcome

The International Criminal Court – The End of Impunity?

Essential Reading:

Robinson, Serving the interests of justice: amnesties, truth commission and the International Criminal Court, E.J.I.L. 2003, 14(3), 481-505

Further Reading:

Anderson, The rise of international criminal law: intended and unintended consequences, E.J.I.L. 2009, 20(2), 331-358

Potter, The International Criminal Court and the complexities of international criminal justice, 231-253 in G. Boas, W. Schabas and M. Scharf, International Criminal Justice: Legitimacy and coherence, Edward Elgar, 2013 (available as an e-book)

Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court 1998, articles 1-10, available at http://www.icc-cpi.int/nr/rdonlyres/ea9aeff7-5752-4f84-be94-0a655eb30e16/0/rome_statute_english.pdf

Schabas, The contribution of the Eichmann trial to international law, L.J.I.L. 2013, 26(3), 667-699

Stephen, International criminal law: wielding the sword of universal criminal justice? I.C.L.Q. 2012, 61(1), 55-89

Warbrick, International criminal law, I.C.L.Q. 1995, 44(2), 466-479

Refugees and Asylum Seekers (Dr Monish Bhatia)

Essential Reading:

Bloch, A., & Schuster, L. (2005). At the extremes of exclusion: Deportation, detention and dispersal. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 28(3), 491-512.

Bhatia M (2015) Turning asylum seekers into ‘dangerous criminals’: Experiences of the criminal justice system of those seeking sanctuary. Journal of Crime, Justice and Social Democracy 4(3): 97-111.

Bosworth M (2008) Border control and the limits of the sovereign state. Social and Legal Studies 17(2): 199-215

Further Reading:

Schuster L (2011) Turning refugees into ‘illegal migrants’: afghan asylum seekers in Europe. Ethnic and Racial studies 34(8): 1392-1407.

Weber, L. (2002). Detention of Asylum Seekers: 20 Reasons Why Criminologists Should Care, The Current Issues in Criminal Justice, 14, 9.

British Red Cross. (2010). Not Gone But Forgotten: The Urgent Need for a More Humane Asylum System. from http://www.redcross.org.uk/About-us/Advocacy/~/media/BritishRedCross/Documents/About%20us/Not%20gone%20but%20forgotten%20destitution%20report.pdf

Bloch, A. (2000). A new era or more of the same? Asylum policy in the UK. Journal of refugee studies, 13(1), 29-42.

Fekete, L. (2003). Death at the Border—Who is to blame? European Race Bulletin, 44, 2-3.

Gibney, M. J. (2004). The ethics and politics of asylum: liberal democracy and the response to refugees: Cambridge University Press.

Hyndman, J. (2000). Managing displacement: Refugees and the politics of humanitarianism (Vol. 16): U of Minnesota Press.

Hassan, L. (2000). Deterrence measures and the preservation of asylum in the United Kingdom and United States. Journal of refugee studies, 13(2), 184-204.

Tuitt, P. (1996). False Images: Law’s Construction of the Refugee: Pluto Press, London.

Zolberg, A. R., Suhrke, A., & Agoayo, S. (1989). Escape from violence: Conflict and the refugee crisis in the developing world. Oxford University Press.

Genocide

Essential Reading:

Green, P. and Ward, T., 2004. State crime: Governments, violence and corruption. Pluto Press.

Jones, A. (2010). Genocide: a comprehensive introduction. Routledge.

Further Reading:

Alvarez, A. (2001). Governments, Citizens, and Genocide: A Comparative and Interdisciplinary Analysis. Indiana University Press.

Bauman, Z. (1989) Modernity and the Holocaust. Buckingham: Open UP

Ervin Staub. (1989). The roots of evil: The origins of genocide and other group violence. Cambridge University Press.

Fein, H. (ed.) (1992) Genocide Watch. New Haven: Yale.

Shaw, M (2003) War and Genocide: Organized Killing in Modern Society. Polity Press, UK.

Melvern, L. (2000). A people betrayed: the role of the West in Rwanda’s genocide. Zed Books.

Straus, S. (2013). The order of genocide: Race, power, and war in Rwanda. Cornell University Press.

Recommended Reading List

Arendt, Hannah (1977) Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil, Penguin

Arendt, Hannah Arendt (1988) The Portable Hannah Arendt, Penguin, ed. Peter Baehr

Baxi, Upendra (2009) The Future of Human Rights Oxford University Press

Benhabib, Seyla (2004) The Rights of Others: Aliens, Residents and Citizens Cambridge University Press

Bhambra, Gurminder and Shilliam, Robbie (eds) (2009) Silencing Human Rights: Critical Engagements with a Contested Project, Palgrave

Brunkhorst, Hauke (2005) Solidarity: From Civic Friendship to a Global Legal Community. MIT Press

Clapham, Andrew (2007) Human Rights: A Very Short Introduction Oxford University Press

Donnelly, Jack (2006) International Human Rights Westview Press

Douzinas, Costas (2007) Human Rights and Empire: The Political Philosophy of Cosmopolitanism Routledge-Cavendish

Fine, Robert (2007) Cosmopolitanism, London: Routledge

Fine, Robert (2002) Democracy and the Rule of Law: Marx’s Critique of the Legal Form, Blackburn Press

Fine, Robert (2001) Political Investigations: Hegel, Marx, Arendt Routledge

Freeman, Michael (2002) Human Rights: An Interdisciplinary Approach (Key Concepts) Cambridge: Polity

Habermas, Jürgen (2006) Times of Transitions Cambridge: Polity

Habermas, Jürgen (2006) The Divided West Cambridge: Polity

Habermas, Jürgen (2001) The Postnational Constellation, Polity Press

Hirsh, David (2003) Law against Genocide: Cosmopolitan Trials, Glasshouse Press

Hunt, Lynn (2007) Inventing human rights: a history, W.W. Norton.

Hunt, Lynn The French Revolution and Human Rights: A Brief Documentary History (The Bedford Series in History and Culture) Palgrave MacMillan 1996.

Ignatieff, Michael Human Rights as Politics and Idolatry, The University Center for Human Values Series

Ishay, Micheline (2008) The History of Human Rights: From Ancient times to the Globalization Era, University of California Press.

Kant, Immanuel (1991) Kant: Political Writings, Edited by Hans Reiss, Cambridge University Press

Koskenniemi, Martti. 2002 The Gentle Civilizer of Nations: The Rise and Fall of International Law Hersch Lauterpacht Memorial Lectures. Cambridge University Press.

Morris, Lydia (ed) (2006) Rights: Sociological Perspectives Routledge

Morris, Lydia (2010 forthcoming) Asylum, Welfare and the Cosmopolitan Ideal: A Sociology of Rights, Glasshouse Press

Muthu, Sankar (2003) Enlightenment against Empire Princeton University Press

Sands, Philippe (2006) Lawless World: Making and Breaking Global Rules Penguin

Other Useful Texts on Human Rights

Apodaca, C. (1998) ‘Measuring Women’s Economic and Social Rights Achievement’, Human Rights Quarterly, 20, pp. 139 -172.

Barsh, R. (1996) ‘Indigenous People and the UN Commission on Human Rights: A Case of the Immovable Object and the Irresistible Force’, Human Rights Quarterly, 18, pp.782 -813.

Bauman, Z. (1998) Globalization: the Human Consequences. Polity Press.

Bokhari, F. (2008) ‘Falling Through the Gaps: Safeguarding Children Trafficked into the UK’, Children & Society, Vol. 22(3), pp. 201-211.

Bottomore, T. (1992 and 1996) ‘Citizenship and Social Class: Forty Years On’, Introduction to Marshall, T.H. and Bottomore, T. Citizenship and Social Class. Pluto.

Brown, A. (2005) Human Rights Law Basics. W Green.

Chase, E. and Statham, J. (2005) ‘Commercial and sexual exploitation of children and young people in the UK—a review’, Child Abuse Review, Vol. 14(1), pp. 4-25.

Cook, R.J. (1994) Women’s Health and Human Rights: the Promotion and Protection of Women’s Health through International Human Rights Law. WHO.

Cook, R.J., Dickens, B. and Fathalla, M.F. (2003) Reproductive Health and Human Rights: Integrating Medicine, Ethics and the Law. Open University Press.

Correa, S., Petchesky, R. and Parker, R. (2008) Sexuality, health and human rights. New York: Routledge.

Cowan, J., Dembour, M and Wilson, R. (eds.) (2001) Culture and Rights Cambridge University Press. (esp. Chs. 1,2, 3 and 4).

Cushman, T. (2000) ‘Genocide or civil War?: Human rights and the politics of conceptualization’, Human Rights Review, 1(3), pp. 12-14.

Downes, D. M. (2007) Crime, social control and human rights: from moral panics to states of denial, essays in honour of Stanley Cohen. Cullompton: Willan.

Evans, T. (2001) The politics of human rights : a global perspective. Pluto Press

Ewing, K. & Dale-Risk, K. (2004) Human Rights in Scotland Text Cases and Materials. Thomson / W Green.

FORWARD (2007) A statistical study to estimate the prevalence of Female

Genital Mutilation in England and Wales. Forward: London.

[http://www.forwarduk.org.uk/download/96]

Foster, S. (2003) Human Rights and Civil Liberties. Longman.

Freeman, M. and Veerman, P. (1992) Ideologies of Children’s Rights. Martines Nijhoff.

Fried, S.T. (2003) ‘Violence Against Women’, Health and Human Rights, 6(2), pp. 88-111.

Gies, L. (2011) ‘A Villains’ Charter? The Press and the Human Rights Act’, Crime Media Culture, 7, pp.167-183.

Goodey, J. (2008) ‘Human trafficking: Sketchy data and policy responses’, Criminology and Criminal Justice, Vol. 8(4), pp. 421–442.

Green, M. (2001) ‘What We Talk About When we Talk About Indicators: Current Approaches to Human Rights Measurement’, Human Rights Quarterly, 23(4), pp.1062-1097.

Janis, W., Kay, R. & Bradley, A. (2002) European Human Rights Law. Open University Press.

Joseph, S. and McBeth. A. (2010) Research handbook on international human rights law. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. [Ebook available from Dawsonera]

Kangaspunta, K. (2003) ‘Mapping the inhuman trade: preliminary findings of the database on

trafficking in human beings’, Forum on Crime and Society, Vol. 3(1/2), pp. 81-104.

[available online: http://www.unodc.org/pdf/crime/forum/forum3.pdf]

Landman, T. (2006) Studying human rights. London : Routledge. [Ebook available from Dawsonera]

Lebov, K. (2010) ‘Human Trafficking in Scotland’, European Journal of Criminology, Vol. 7(1), pp. 77–93.

Lerner, N. (2003) Group Rights and Discrimination in International Law. Martines Nijhoff.

Lister, R. (1997) Citizenship: Feminist Perspectives. Macmillan. (esp. Ch. 3)

McColgan, A. (1999) Women under the Law: the False Promise of Human Rights. Longman.

Mills, C. W. (1970) The Sociological Imagination. Penguin.

Morris, L. (1997) ‘Globalization, Migration and the Nation-State: The Path to a Post-National Europe?’, The British Journal of Sociology, 48(2), pp.192-209.

Morris, L. (2006) Rights: Sociological Perspectives. London: Routledge.

Morris, L. (2007) ‘New Labour’s Community of Rights: Welfare, Immigration and Asylum’ Journal of Social Policy, 36(1), pp. 39-57.

Munro, V. E. (2006) ‘Stopping Traffic? A Comparative Study of Responses to the Trafficking in Women for Prostitution’, British Journal of Criminology, Vol. 46(2), pp. 318-333.

Oberleitner, G. (2007) Global Human Rights Institutions. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Parmentier, S. (2010) ‘Epilogue: Human Trafficking Seen from the Future’, European Journal of Criminology, Vol. 7(1), pp. 95–100.

Preis, A. (1996) ‘Human Rights as Cultural Practice: An Anthropological Critique’, Human Rights Quarterly, 18(2), pp. 286-315.

Reddy, R. (2008) ‘Gender, Culture and the Law: Approaches to ‘Honour Crimes’ in the UK’, Feminist Legal Studies, 16, pp. 305-321.

Reichert, E. (2006) Understanding Human Rights: An Exercise Book. London: Sage.

Roger, N. and Zaidi, S. (2008) Human rights at the UN: the political history of universal justice. Bloomington, IN : Indiana University Press.

Scotland’s Commissioner for Children and Young People & the Centre for Rural Childhood, Perth College (2011) Scotland: A safe place for child traffickers? A scoping study into the nature and extent of child trafficking in Scotland. Edinburgh: Scotland’s Commissioner for Children and Young People. [available online: http://www.sccyp.org.uk/uploaded_docs/policy/sccyp%20child%20trafficking%20report.pdf]

Smith, R. (2007) Text and Materials on International Human Rights. Oxon: Routledge-Cavendsh.

Smith, R. K.M. (2010) Textbook on international human rights. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.

Stone, R. (2012) Textbook on civil liberties and human rights. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [2006 edition also available]

Symonides, J. (ed.) (2000). Human Rights: Concepts and Standards. Ashgate: Dartmouth.

Tilly, J. (2000) “Cultural Relativism”, Human Rights Quarterly, 22(2), p.501 – 547.

Turner, B. (1993) “Outline of a Theory of Human Rights”, Sociology, 27(3), p.489-512

Turner, B. (1997) “A Neo-Hobbesian Theory of Human Rights: A Reply to Malcolm Waters”, Sociology, 31(3), p.565-571.

Turner, B. and Rojek, C. (2001) Society and Culture. Sage (especially chapters 7 and 11).

Vol. 7(1), pp. 77–93.

UNDOC (2009) Global Report on Trafficking in Persons. UN.GIFT.

[available online: http://www.unodc.org/documents/Global_Report_on_TIP.pdf]

Smith, R. (2005) Textbook on International Human Rights Law. OUP.

Voorhoof, D. and Cannie, H. (2010) ‘Freedom of Expression and Information in a Democratic Society: The Added but Fragile Value of the European Convention on Human Rights’, International Communication Gazette, 72(4-5): 407 – 423.

Wallace, R. (2001) International Human Rights: Text and Materials. Sweet & Maxwell.

Waters, M. (1996) ‘Human Rights and the Universalisation of Interests’, Sociology 30(3), pp. 593-600.

Wellman, C. (2000) ‘Solidarity, the Individual and Human Rights’, Human Rights Quarterly, 22(3), pp. 639-657.

White, R., Ovey, C. and Jacobs, F. (2010) European Convention on Human Rights. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Woodiwiss, A. (2005) Human Rights. Routledge.